Remembering the Unremembered: Five American Massacres That Shaped a Nation

The Five American massacres that America struggles to confront

American history is often framed through narratives of progress and perseverance. Yet woven into that history are moments of extreme violence—massacres that were not accidental, spontaneous, or unavoidable. These events occurred within identifiable social, political, racial, and economic conditions. Understanding how and why these massacres happened is essential to understanding the systems that allowed them—and the long shadows they continue to cast. This article examines five American massacres, not only recounting what occurred but also critically analyzing the forces that made each tragedy possible.

Historical Amnesia and the Cost of Silence

Many American massacres were deliberately mischaracterized as “riots,” “battles,” or “disturbances,” shifting blame away from perpetrators and obscuring state or institutional involvement. This phenomenon—often referred to as collective amnesia—allows societies to preserve comforting national myths while avoiding accountability (Blight, 2021).

Research indicates that unresolved historical violence contributes to long-term trauma, mistrust of institutions, and persistent inequality across generations (Brave Heart et al., 2018).

1. The Wounded Knee Massacre (1890) — South Dakota

Cause: Fear of Indigenous Resistance and Loss of Control

How it occurred

On December 29, 1890, U.S. Army troops attempted to disarm Lakota men near Wounded Knee Creek. During the tense encounter, a gunshot—its origin still disputed—triggered indiscriminate gunfire. Soldiers used Hotchkiss cannons, killing approximately 250–300 Lakota Sioux, the majority of whom were women and children (Dunbar-Ortiz, 2021).

Why it occurred

Wounded Knee occurred amid federal efforts to suppress the Ghost Dance movement, a spiritual revival promising renewal and the return of Indigenous lands. U.S. authorities interpreted the movement as a threat to military and territorial control and responded with force rather than negotiation (Dunbar-Ortiz, 2021).

Racial dehumanization of Native Americans enabled officials to frame the massacre as a “battle.” Twenty soldiers were awarded Medals of Honor—a decision still widely contested today (National Park Service [NPS], 2023).

Why it matters:

Wounded Knee represents the violent culmination of U.S. policies of displacement, cultural suppression, and military domination of Indigenous peoples.

2. The Tulsa Race Massacre (1921) — Oklahoma

Cause: Racial Terror and Economic Resentment

How it occurred

Following a false accusation against a Black teenager, white mobs—some deputized by local officials—attacked Tulsa’s Greenwood District. Over 24 hours, more than 1,200 homes and businesses were destroyed, and as many as 300 Black residents were killed. Airplanes were used for surveillance and incendiary attacks (Ellsworth, 2021).

Why it occurred

Tulsa was fueled by white supremacist ideology, post–World War I racial tension, and resentment toward Greenwood’s economic success. Law enforcement failed to protect Black residents and, in some cases, actively participated in the violence (Ellsworth, 2021).

Insurance companies denied claims, and the massacre was excluded from formal education for decades—demonstrating institutional reinforcement of racial injustice (Alexander, 2020).

Why it matters:

Tulsa illustrates how racial violence was used as a tool to destroy Black prosperity and enforce racial hierarchy.

3. The Colfax Massacre (1873) — Louisiana

Cause: Political Power Struggles and White Supremacy

How it occurred

After a disputed gubernatorial election during Reconstruction, white supremacist militias attacked Black citizens defending a courthouse in Colfax. More than 150 Black men were killed, many after surrendering (Foner, 2020).

Why it occurred

Colfax was driven by violent resistance to Black political participation in the aftermath of the Civil War. White militias sought to overturn election results and reassert dominance through terror (Foner, 2020).

The Supreme Court’s ruling in United States v. Cruikshank (1876) overturned federal convictions, severely limiting the government’s ability to prosecute racial violence.

Why it matters:

Colfax weakened Reconstruction and emboldened racial terrorism, laying the groundwork for Jim Crow laws and systemic disenfranchisement.

4. The Sand Creek Massacre (1864) — Colorado Territory

Cause: Manifest Destiny and Racial Dehumanization

How it occurred

Despite explicit assurances of peace, U.S. cavalry forces attacked a Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment at dawn. Approximately 150 Native people—primarily women, children, and elders—were killed. Survivors reported mutilation and trophy-taking (NPS, 2023).

Why it occurred

Manifest Destiny drove Sand Creek, the belief that westward expansion was divinely justified. Indigenous peoples were framed as obstacles to progress rather than sovereign nations (Dunbar-Ortiz, 2021).

Although a congressional investigation condemned the massacre, no meaningful punishment followed.

Why it matters:

Sand Creek reveals how expansionist ideology normalized extreme violence when Indigenous lives were deemed expendable.

5. The Ludlow Massacre (1914) — Colorado

Cause: Labor Conflict and Corporate Power

How it occurred

During a coal miners’ strike protesting unsafe conditions, the Colorado National Guard and private guards attacked a tent colony housing miners’ families. Fires destroyed the camp, killing at least 25 people, including 11 children who suffocated while hiding underground (Andrews, 2020).

Why it occurred

The massacre stemmed from corporate resistance to labor organizing, extreme power imbalances, and state alignment with industrial interests. Labor protest was criminalized, and workers’ lives were treated as expendable (Andrews, 2020).

Why it matters:

Ludlow demonstrates that massacres can emerge from economic exploitation—not only racial or ethnic conflict.

Patterns Across American Massacres

Despite differing contexts, these massacres share common conditions:

• Dehumanization of targeted groups

• Fear of losing political, racial, or economic power

• Institutional or government complicity

• Lack of accountability

• Narratives that justified violence after the fact

Mass violence does not erupt spontaneously—it is cultivated through policy, rhetoric, and silence (Straus, 2012).

Conclusion: Why Remembering Still Matters

American massacres challenge comforting narratives, but they also offer critical lessons. Remembering these events is not about assigning collective guilt—it is about recognizing how systems fail and how early warning signs emerge.

History does not demand perfection.

It demands honesty.

References

Alexander, M. (2020). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. The New Press.

Andrews, T. G. (2020). Killing for coal: America’s deadliest labor war. Harvard University Press.

Blight, D. W. (2021). Race and reunion: The Civil War in American memory. Harvard University Press.

Brave Heart, M. Y. H., Chase, J., Elkins, J., & Altschul, D. B. (2018). Historical trauma among Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 50(3), 235–241.

Dunbar-Ortiz, R. (2021). An Indigenous peoples’ history of the United States. Beacon Press.

Ellsworth, S. (2021). The ground breaking: An American city and its search for justice. Penguin Random House.

Foner, E. (2020). Reconstruction: America’s unfinished revolution, 1863–1877. Harper Perennial.

National Park Service. (2023). Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site. U.S. Department of the Interior.

Straus, S. (2012). Genocide and mass atrocity prevention. United States Institute of Peace.